Revival of Korean Culture: The Later Three Kingdoms & Goryeo Dynasty

When peace falls, a war begins. But it’s not the kind of war you’re thinking of. It all started with the legend of Dangun. When a deity becomes envious of human nature, they go to great lengths to start their own form of human life. With the help of the supernatural, animals, and the surrounding kingdoms, Korean nationals and culture was born, developing into Samguk Sidae: Three Kingdoms of Korea. However, not only were Korean kingdoms at war with several Chinese kingdoms and tribes, but also with each other. When there seemed to be too many rivaling kings and not enough land, many wars broke out, solely focusing on occupying land from far and wide. As Buddhism became popular, intelligence grew, the self-inflicting war stopped, and the Korean Peninsula was finally tranquil and unified.

Until a century later. Although culturally and technologically advanced, Unified Silla (통일신라) couldn’t handle the weight of its own people, causing the kingdom to fall in C.E. 935. After more than 100 years of living in peace, its society started to crumble when the kingdom’s rich became obnoxious with power, but even more so was its people fighting for their rights. The governmental structure was tough, and it showed as the capital city, Seorabeol (서라벌, modern Gyeongju (경주)), never changed. Because the kingdom was so politically stuck in its ways, the aristocrats grew richer, but the peasants grew poorer despite their increasing workload. It was important for citizens to adhere to the "Bone Clan Class" system to show that even a small number of powerful people could control a much larger group. Other kingdoms started adopting these elite ways of living, but eventually, Unified Silla’s people grew tired and overthrew the kingdom just as the Goryeo Dynasty (고려) began.

Later Three Kingdoms

Before the Korean Peninsula was unified, Silla (신라) was a thriving kingdom slowly succumbing to its political issues. Eventually, the majority of the Korean kingdoms were merged and flourished as one. However, in the late 8th Century, the aristocracy was gaining power again and more parties were making themselves known. By the 10th Century, there were more nobles and governments than ever, but they were mostly from high-class families due to the Bone Rank system. It halted creativity and societal advancement and made it difficult for low-class people to be promoted. But the one thing they had in common was their desire to rule, and soon-to-be king Gyeon Hwon and Buddhist monk Gungye in particular created their own system where they could do exactly that.


The Later Three Kingdoms era (후삼국시대) was somewhat short-lived between A.D. 889 to 935. It saw the revival of the Baekje (백제) and Goguryeo (고구려) Kingdoms, but not how they once were. In A.D. 892, Gyeon Hwon saw that Unified Silla was self-destructing. He established the Later Baekje Kingdom (후백제), employing Wansanju (완산주, modern Jeonju (전주시)) as its capital, and ruled over present-day Jeollado (전라도) and Chungcheongdo (충청도). In A.D. 901, Gungye, who was a member of the Silla royal family, also dreamed of a better world (but mostly wanted power). He established Later Goguryeo (후고구려) in Songak (송악, modern Kaesong (개성시)), and ruled over present-day Gangwondo (강원도) and Gyeonggido (경기도), but changed the name to Majin (마진) in A.D. 904. Despite these changes, after occupying more land and improving the ruling system, Gunye changed the capital to Cheorwon (철원군) and again, renamed the kingdom Taebong (태봉) in A.D. 911. However, this kingdom was also short-lived, falling in A.D. 918. Despite the troubles these kingdoms faced, Silla prince Park Eonchang (박언창) was inspired by their success and established his own kingdom called Later Sabeol (후사벌). Its capital was Sangju (상주시, present-day North Gyeongsang province (경상북도)), but the small kingdom wasn’t included in the Later Three Kingdoms and only stood from A.D. 919 to 927 after falling into Gyeon Hwon’s hands.

The Rise of Goryeo

Before Taebong’s demise, Gunye became obsessed with claiming the throne and forced control upon other local leaders, where he soon lost their trust. Specifically, local leader - soon promoted to military commander - Wang Geon (왕건) from Songak scared Gungye so much that he left his role. The leader shortly took the kingdom as his own, renaming it Goryeo as an homage to the late Goguryeo Kingdom, and moved its capital back to his hometown. In fact, Goryeo was the first official Korean dynasty and inspired the country’s current name “Korea.”

Goryeo remained weary and guarded over Later Baekje, meanwhile trying to ally with Silla. But with Goryeo’s newfound power, Later Baekje instead attacked Silla in A.D. 920, leaving it the weakest of the three kingdoms. Silla requested Goryeo’s help, but after seven years, the kingdom’s capital could no longer stand after being attacked once more. King Gyeongae of Silla (경애왕) committed suicide, and a puppet king was placed instead of a true successor and reigned as Gyeongsun (경순왕). However, Wang Geon could not stand for such betrayal. Goryeo attacked Later Baekje’s capital and won, but it wouldn’t be the last battle.

As if losing parts of his kingdom wasn’t enough, Gyeon Hwon was soon faced with another battle by his own son Gyeon Singeom (견신검). The prince was upset that his father favored his younger half-brother Geumgang (금강), who was next in line for the throne. In turn, he imprisoned his father and murdered the future king with the help of his two other brothers Yanggeom (양검) and Yonggeom (용검). During this time, Wang Geon had the majority control over Silla. Goryeo started to receive recognition from non-Korean kingdoms, and those who were able to escape from Balhae (발해) returned to the Korean Peninsula.

In A.D. 935, Wang Geon’s efforts paid off as Unified Silla integrated into Goryeo and King Gyeongsun surrendered. Unfortunately, Gyeon Hwon escaped from prison and allied with Wang Geon to remove his son from Later Baekje’s throne. The predecessor led a Goryeo army in A.D. 936 and succeeded, but at the cost of his and his son’s lives. But now, Later Baekje was severely damaged and needed a savior. They agreed to integrate with Goryeo after Wang Geon declared Yanggeom and Yonggeom at fault for their deaths, and gave Gyeon Singeom a noble title. Meanwhile, Wang Geon was given the title Taejo of Goryeo (고려 태조, Great Founder), establishing the Goryeo Dynasty, leaving the Later Three Kingdoms as a legacy and unifying the Korean Peninsula once again. Little did they know that the Goryeo Dynasty would survive for 500 years before the peace was broken once more.

Culture & Artifacts

Buddhism sprouted during the Three Kingdoms of Korea and became a leading religion by the time Goryeo was established, but the religion didn’t fix the Bone Rank system. Instead, Confucianism, a philosophy or religion from ancient China based on ethics and morals, was used for building a greater political and education system. As a whole, the dynasty became more accepting towards other religions, as seen in Yeondeunghoe (연등회, Lotus Lantern Festival) and Palgwanhoe (팔관회, Festival of the Eight Vows), where prayers were offered for blessing.

The dynasty also became more accepting of trading with the Song Dynasty and other countries, such as Central Asia, Arabia, Southeast Asia, and Japan. Traders traveled to Byeongnando (벽란도) where a route to the capital was created. The Song Dynasty sold satin, silk, and medicinal herbs; Goryeo sold hemp cloth and ginseng; and ivory, crystal, and amber gems were imported from Arabia.

Goryeo developed the celadon pottery technique in the 12th and 13th Centuries, but by this point, Goryeo had access to many materials, and since creativity was no longer hindered, citizens flocked to their workshops to create something new. Temples still standing today were built in Japan, but the best architecture was saved for Korea itself. Unfortunately, Mongols destroyed many cultural heritage sites and architecture, including the nine-tier pagoda at Hwangnyongsa Temple (황룡사). As a result, cannons were further developed and Choe Museon (최무선) invented the singijeon (신기전), a type of arrow launcher, toward the end of the Goryeo Dynasty to help protect what was left standing. The launcher had a firing range of 100 to 150 meters and was improved in A.D. 1448. It is the oldest weapon known to have a blueprint intact from the time of creation to the present day.

In A.D. 1018, the most powerful dynasty, Liao, invaded Goryeo, but General Gam Chan (강감찬) won the Goryeo-Khitan War (고려-거란 전쟁), also known as the Battle of Kuju (귀주대첩). Since the Khitan were no longer a threat, Goryeo saw a century-long golden age that supported the completion of the Tripitaka Koreana (팔만 대장경, Eighty-Thousand Buddhist Scriptures). The structure was a woodblock library for Buddhist canon written in Hanja script (한자). By A.D. 1100, 12 universities were founded that saw famous scholars and scientists produce books based on philosophy, literature, religion, and science. The title is derived from the 81,258 wooden printing blocks in which Tripitaka was placed, which could only be produced due to the invention of the metal movable type (a new type of printer). This device was created more than 200 years before western kingdoms discovered it, and greatly improved printing, publishing, and the preservation of the written word for future generations to see.

Edited by Asia Moore

Culture, Monthly ColumnsNana BarrattComment